Literature of the Vijayanagara Empire

This article is about the literature of the Vijayanagara Empire and we would talk about the famous books of that period and why these books are famous.

Why a desire to know about the Literature of the Vijayanagara Empire

In the previous article of the series ( Zenana Quarters), I mentioned that some people believe that Lotus Mahal served the purpose of council chamber where Ramaraya (Tuluva Dynasty) spent time with scholars, listening and participating in discussions and discourses of gurus on the topics of religion, spiritual matters, music, art and literature.

This generated a desire in me to read and write about the role of Vijayanagar Rayas in contributing to the vast literary heritage.

How the Vijayanagara dynasty helped in flourishing the world of literature

We know, long periods of stable and peaceful reign of monarchs and dynasties helped them to focus on the welfare of their subjects and in general this is also the period when their focus shifted towards patronizing and nurturing talents in the fields of art, architecture, music and literature.

The reign of Rayas that lasted four dynasties (Sangama, Salavu, Tuluva and Aravidu) and approximately four centuries, also had many such pockets of peaceful periods when a Raya’s interest in these finer aspects of life resulted in encouragement to the freedom of rich expression in art and literature, and these fields attaining creative pinnacle.

Literary Contributions of sage Vidyaranya during Bukka-I rule

Possibly, the inclination of the Vijayanagar Rayas towards these aspects lies in the foundation of the empire itself; as the patron saint of the empire was the sage Vidyaranya. He earned this name due to his profound and extensive knowledge on a variety of subjects, reminiscent of a dense forest.

We know that his understanding of military strategies helped him to convince Hukka and Bukka to lay foundation of the Vijayanagar Empire at Hampi. He had a strong spiritual understanding and lots of pupil followed him for their spiritual growth. He has written many philosophical works such as:

Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha (सर्वदर्शन संग्रह) (a compendium of sixteen philosophical schools of Hindu thought – including Carvaka, Buddhism, Jainism, Shaivism, Ramanuja System, Yoga and Vedanta), Pañcadaśī (पन्चदशि)- a standard text on the philosophy of the Advaita Vedanta tradition, and Jīvanamuktivivēka (जीवन्न्मुक्तिविवेक) – the path of liberation in this life.

Apart from these, he wrote “Sangeet-Sara” in Sanskrit; it is probably the first text to group Ragas according to their parent scale in Karnataka Sangeeta (the music of South India).

It would not be an exaggeration to state about Sage Vidyaranya that “As a far-sighted scholar, as a bulwark of the Vijayanagar kingdom in the first days of its foundation and as a Sanyasin given to peaceful contemplation and renunciation in old age, he led such a varied and useful life, that to even this day is a name to conjure with.”

Literary Contributions of others during Bukka-I rule

Let us move further down the line chronologically and talk about other luminary writers during the reign of Vijayanagar rayas.

During the reign of Bukka I, a team headed by Sayana, who was probably the brother of the sage Vidyaranya, accomplished the remarkable feat of critically commenting on and elucidating the Samhitas of all four Vedas. His main work, the renowned Vedartha Prakasha (वेदार्थ प्रकाश), stands out. Additionally, his commentary on the Rigveda was edited by the distinguished German-born philologist and Orientalist, Max Müller.

Madhura Vijayam, a poem by queen Gangadevi, Daughter-in-law of Bukka-I

Later Queen Gangadevi, Bukka-I’s daughter-in-law, wrote a beautiful poem in Sanskrit named “Madhura Vijayam” (मधुरा विजयं) celebrating her husband, Kumar Kampana’s victory over Madurai.

The book describes how a lady came to Kumar Kampana’s court and requested him to save Tamil country from the horrifying tyranny of Turks by acting with urgency to save whatever is worth saving.

O King! the city, which is called Madhurapuri for its honeyed loveliness
has now become the city of cruel beasts
It now lives up to its earlier name of Vyaghrapuri, the city of tigers
as the humans don’t dwell there anymore.

Those temples of Gods which used to reverberate with the sacred melody of Mrindangam
now echo the dreadful howls of jackals.

In the Brahmin (Agraharam) of our city
huge columns of smoke emanating from the sacred yajnas used to rise up and reach the skies
amid the sacred  vedic chants,
but Alas, today those selfsame quarters send up wretched stench of meats roasted by Turks.
The vedic chants are now replaced by the beastly cacophony of drunken hoodlums.

During the days of Pandayas, our women used to bathe in (river) Taamrapani
and the water of the river turned white from the sandal-paste applied to their breasts.
My lord! now she’s colored only in red from the currents of blood flowing into her
from all the cows slaughtered by its wicked occupiers all over the country.

O King! I cannot bear to look at the countenance of those Dravida ladies who were bounteously endowed with beauty
Ravished horribly by the scourging Turks,
these delicate women now sport lifeless lips and exhale hot breaths
And their abundant tresses that have come undone are painful to eyes.
I don’t have the words to describe the sufferings and dishonors painted on their faces,
which know neither redemption nor protection.

The book mentions, later that night Goddess Meenakshi appeared in Kumar Kampana’s dream and revealed that the lady who visited the court was nobody else but her only.

This book details how he then invaded Madurai, destroyed the Muslim armies, slayed the last sultan in combat and restored the temple-town to its old glory.

Madhura Vijayam – The discovery of the book and the Critics opinion about it

The highly praised poem clearly demonstrates that the empire’s queens were well-educated, deeply understood politics, and actively participated in military campaigns and strategies.

Sanskrit scholars and literary critics consider Madhura-Vijayam as one of the finest accomplishments in Sanskrit poetry for its theme, elegance, form, and linguistic excellence. Apart from its literary achievements the poem is invaluable also because it provides a first person contemporary historical record of the time.

This book was discovered in the early 1900s, in a private traditional library at Thiruvananthapuram by Pandit N Ramasvami Sastriar. Sastriar discovered the poem in a bounded manuscript between two other unrelated works. So far, sixty-one palm leaf manuscripts have been found. The poem is made up of nine chapters with some verses missing and presumed lost.

The next major contributions were in Kannada language. So let us talk about the earliest Literature in Kannada Language first.

Earliest Literature in Kannada Language

Among all the South-Indian languages, except for the Tamil, the literature in Kannada is the oldest. The earliest surviving literature in Kannada is Kavirajamarga (कवीराजमार्गा), composed by the court poet Srivijaya of Rashtrakuta Emperor Nriptunga Amongvarsha in 850 AD. This is the earliest available work on rhetoric, poetics and grammar in the Kannada language.

The name literally means “Royal Path for Poets” and the book is written as a guide for poets and scholars. This book is first text in the world to theorize the relationship between a vernacular language and the cosmopolitan Sanskrit. The aim of Amoghavarsha and Srivijaya was to establish a Kannada lexicon that possessed aesthetic and poetic attributes on par with the esteemed literature of the Sanskrit Cosmopolis.

The idea behind Amongvarsha’s sponsorship was to elevate Kannada to the aesthetic and expressive heights of Sanskrit, making it a language of beauty, power, and prestige, worthy of gracing the prashastis of kings.

The emergence of ‘courtly Kannada’ found a remarkably fertile environment, quickly gaining adoption in royal courts and among thousands of poets and panegyrists.

Though it is the earliest surviving work, while reading the book there are references that even at that time considerable volume of prose and poetry existed in the language.

In the book itself, Durvinta, is mentioned as one of the best writers of the Kannada prose. He is believed to be a Ganga monarch of the sixth century. It can be deduced from the book Kavirajmarga that in the middle of the ninth century, Kannada speaking population extended from Kaveri to Godaveri; including the Marathi speaking territories of the modern times.

A quote from this book, that talks about the poetical skills of Kannada speaking people:

In all the circle of earth
No fairer land you’ll find
Than that were rich sweet Kannada
Voices the people’s mind
‘Twixt sacred river twain it lies-
From famed Godavari
To where the pilgrim rests his eyes
Only holy Kaveri…
The people of that land are skilled
To speak in rhythmic tone,
And quick to grasp a poet’s thought,
So kindred to their own
Not students only, but the folk
untutored in the school,
By instinct use and understand
The strict poetic rules.

Contribution of the Jains to the Kannada Literature

The early contributors to the Kannada literature were Jains. They started to talk and write about the spiritual matters in local language so as to maximize the reach and to take away the notion that the Sanskrit is the only suitable language to talk about the religious matters.

The two celebrated author of the seventh century were Syamakundacharya (c. 650), who authored the Prabhrita, and Srivaradhadeva (also called Tumubuluracharya, c. 650 or earlier), who wrote the Chudamani (“Crest Jewel”), a 96,000-verse commentary on logic “तत्वर्थ महाशास्त्र ”. Both of these works are lost and are not in existence today. The Great Kannada Grammarian Bhattakalanka (1604) considered Chudamani as the greatest work in the language.

The oldest existing Kannada literature

The first existing real literature in Kannada is believed to be the Vaddaradhane by Sivakoti Acharya, a Jain writer of not later than the 9th century. This book is a prose work on the lives of older Jain saints, written mostly in oldest known Kannada style “Purvahala Kannada”.

This book provides insights on contemporary society including education, trade and commerce, magic and superstitions, the caste system and untouchability, and position of women in society.

There are details on contemporary urban and rural society: towns with majestic buildings and multi-storied houses; temples (devalaya); a street for the prostitutes (sulegeri); palaces; streets with people, horses and elephants; homes of cloth merchants (dusigar); homes of diamond merchants (baccara); feudatories (samanta); royal officials (niyogi); grain markets and traders; and the existence of villages and towns.

It mentions fierce warriors, royal retainers (velevali) who were under oath to lay down their life for the king and royalty.

Literature during the Reign of Harihara-II and Devaraya-I (Contribution of Jains in Kannada during the Vijayanagar Rayas)

The poet Madhura (1385) who was patronized by the ministers of Harihara-II and Devaraya-I, wrote “Dharama-nath Purana” (धर्मनाथ पुराण), on the life of the fifteenth Jain Teerthankara Dharmanatha; he is also known for his short poem on Gometeshwara (Bahubali) of Shravanabelagola.

One of Deva Raya’s (I) queens Bhima Devi was a disciple of the Jain guru Abhinava Charukirti Panditacharya. She was a devotee of Shantinatha, 16th Jain Tirthankara and built a temple at the Mangayi Basti in Shravanabelagola. The installation of an idol by the queen was an important event and is well-remembered in the inscriptions.

Contribution of Veershaivas to the Kannada literature:

After the Jain community, the maximum contributions in writing and promoting Kannada language and literature came from the Veershaivas (followers of the Guru Basaveśvara – the eminent guru of the twelfth century). He and his followers wrote Vacanas in local language so it could be understood and followed by all.

The vacanas are a special kind of literary compositions in the Kannada language – the religious or semi-religious lyrics in the local colloquial language. They are written like prose but are flavored with poetical grace.

Akka Mahadevi, the saint-poetess of Karnataka

There were around two hundred writers at the time of Guru Basappa with many women among them and Akka Mahadevi was their head.

She is seen as an inspirational woman for Kannada literature and the history of Karnataka; though her own contribution includes only 430 extant Vachana poems, and two short writings called Mantrogopya and the Yogangatrividhi, much lesser as compared to the other saints of the movement.

She considered Lord Shiva as her husband and boldly proclaimed, “Take these husbands who die decay, and feed them to your kitchen fires!” She is believed to have traveled to the Srisailam mountains towards the end of her life, where she lived as an ascetic, and eventually become one with the Lord Shiva (just like Meera Bai).

One of her famous vachana translates as

People,
male and female,
blush when a cloth covering their shame
comes loose

When the lord of lives
lives drowned without a face
in the world, how can you be modest?

When all the world is the eye of the lord,
on looking everywhere, what can you
cover and conceal?

Her poetry exhibits her love for ‘Chenna Mallikarjuna’ (As per Hindu legend, where Shiva  was worshipped with jasmine , locally called Mallika), leading to the name of presiding deity as Mallikarjuna)  and harmony with nature and simple living.

She Sang:

For hunger, there is the village rice in the begging bowl,
For thirst, there are tanks and streams and wells
For sleep temple ruins do well
For the company of the soul I have you, Chenna Mallikarjuna

Guru Basavanna 

Guru Basavanna was a 12th-century philosopher, statesman, Kannada poet in the Niraakaara Shiva-focused Bhakti movement and a social reformer during the reign of the Kalachuri-dynasty king Bijjala I in Karnataka, India. He spread social awareness through his poetry, popularly known as Vachanaas.

Basavanna rejected gender or social discrimination, superstitions and rituals such as the wearing of sacred thread, but introduced Ishtalinga necklace, with an image of the Shiva Liṅga, to every person regardless of his or her birth, to be a constant reminder of one’s bhakti (devotion) to Shiva.

Guru Basava is credited with seven works, Sapta-kavya, six of these poems are written in Shatpadi meter – carrying a dialogue between teacher and pupil.

He wrote Shat-sthala-vachana (discourses of the six stages of salvation), Kala-jnana-vachana (forecasts of the future), Mantra-gopya, Ghatachakra-vachana and Raja-yoga-vachana and another composition of him is Avadhuta-gite, ‘songs in praise of detachment’.

Basava emphasized constant personal spiritual development as the path to profound enlightenment.

The rich
will make temples for Shiva,
What shall I,
a poor man do?

My legs are pillars,
the body the shrine,
the head a cupola of gold.

Listen, O lord of the meeting rivers,
things standing shall fall,
but the moving ever shall stay.

— Basavanna 820, Translated by Ramanujan

He questioned rituals, dualism and externalization of god, and stated that the true god is “one with himself, self-born”.

How can I feel right
about a god who eats up lacquer and melts,
who Wilts when he sees fire?

How can I feel right
about gods you sell in your need,
and gods you bury for fear of thieves?

The lord of the meeting rivers,
self-born, one with himself,
he alone is the true god.

— Basavanna 558, Translated by Ramanujan

The categories of Veershaivas/Lingayat literature   

It mainly falls into two categories – Stories of the reformers and devotees, and the elucidation of the doctrines.

The stories of the reformers

In the first category lies Basava-Purana written by Bhimakavi, an Aradhya-Brahmin, in 1369 an important work on the hagiology (literature dealing with life and literature of saints).

This work was a translation of Palkurike Somanatha’s book written in Telugu; but was done more elaborately and more descriptive details were added to it. This Kannada Basava-Purana has gained sanctity and popularity as a standard biography of Guru Basava.

Another author Singiraja wrote Amala-Basava-Charitra in 1500 that recounts eighty-eight miracles of Guru Basava and also give particulars of his opponents at Bijjala’s court.

Contribution of Chamarasa (a Shaivite) during the reign of Devaraya-II

Another Aradhya Brahmin poet, Chamarasa, who was in the court of Devaraya-II wrote Prabhulinga Leele. He chose Prabhulinga, who is also known as Allama Prabhu, and was an associate of the guru Basava, as the hero of his narrative.

In this work Prabhulinga is regarded as an incarnation of the Lord Ganesha whom Maa Parvati tests as the princess of Banavase for his detachment from the worldly matters. When the book was complete and read out to Devaraya-II, he was so impressed that he got it translated in Tamil and Telugu, and later into Sanskrit and Marathi as well.

Visit of Travel Writers Abdur Razaak and Nicolas Conti during the reign of Devaraya-II

During the reign of Devaraya-II, Abdur Razaak an envoy of Timurid Sultan Shahrukh, and Nicolas Conti, a Venetian from a noble family, visited Hampi. Both of these travelers describe Devaraya II as a great conqueror, a fine scholar and author, a liberal patron of art and letters and a great builder too.

Devaraya-II also had the title Gajabetegara, which literally means “Hunter of elephants”, possibly due to his hunting expeditions to kill elephants or a metaphor referring to his victories against enemies with strong elephant armies.

Books of Devaraya-II

The emperor Devraya II himself authored two works in Kannada, namely Sobagina Sone (Drizzle in beauty – a collection of romantic stories in the form of a narration by the author to his wife) and Amaruka ( Kannada translation of Sanskrit poem Amaru-Sataka which contains one hundred poems based on the theme of amorous love), and one in Sanskrit, namely Mahanataka Sudhanidhi.

Below is an excerpt from the translation of a stanzas from the book Amaru-Sataka:

The house parrot spoke the words
exchanged during the night between the married couple
having heard them does it repeats in the presence of elders
It afflicts the young bride into shame,
she so took the ruby from her ear ornament
and offer it to the speaking parrot like a pomegranate
and hinder its speech

This seventh century book in Sanskrit, “Amaru-Sataka”, has sensuous stanzas on love, and it also reflects its authors understanding of feminine psychology. Here is another beautiful stanzas from the book.

Fool that I was, why didn’t I clasp the lord of my life to my neck
Why did I turn my face away when he wanted to kiss me
“Why did I not see, Why did I not speak!
So When love is first awakened
A girl is filled with remorse as she thinks of her childish shyness.

Contribution of Kumara Vyasa (a Vaishanvite) during the reign of Devaraya-II

Apart from Chamrasa (a devout Basappa follower and a Shaivite in the court of Devaraya-II) there was a strong representation of Vaishanvites in the form of Kumara Vyasa – the pen name of an erudite Brahmin author Naranappa, a tribute to his magnum opus, a rendering of the Mahabharata in Kannada (Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari).

Kumar Vyasa translated the first ten parva(sections) of Mahabharata from Sanskrit to Kannada and dedicated it to the deity of Gadug.

There is a strong belief that Kumara Vyasa was blessed by Lord Vishnu. The poet used to sit in front of the sanctum sanctorum of Veeranarayana temple in Gadag, and Narayana himself narrated him the story of the ancient Mahabharatha from behind the statue. The poet transformed this story into excellent poetry.

However, Narayana laid down a condition that Kumara was to only listen to this voice without attempting to see the source or the spirit narrating the story. When the tenth parva of his work was complete, Kumara was deeply curious to see the narrator. Much to his surprise, he saw Narayana himself narrating the story.

He also saw a scene of the Kurukshetra War as if it was happening in front of him. However, Kumara had violated the condition that he would not search for the source of the voice. At that point, the lord disappeared and the narration of the Mahabharata stopped forever.

His work becomes famous as Gadugina Bharata and Kumaravyasa Bharata. People still widely read Gadugina Bharata and sing it in a unique style known as Gamaka. Kumara Vyasa’s other, lesser-known work is Airavata.

The Debates between Chamrasa and Kumar Vyasa

The debates in the court of Devaraya II between Chamrasa and Kumar Vyasa were fierce and hence well-remembered. Kumar Vyasa proudly acclaimed that Gadugina Bharata of his is the “Master of the works of all other great scholars.”

And on the other hand Chamrasa claims that his Prabhulinga Leele is “not about ordinary dead mortals”, implying that the Vaishnava epics (the Ramayana and the Mahabharata) were about mere mortals. (Interesting to see even the talented  and spiritually inclined people fueling their own egos and beliefs).

The literary Contribution of the Lingayat minsters of Devaraya-II

In the court of Devaraya II there were two zealous Lingayat ministers – Lakkana Dandesa and Jakkanarya.

Lakanna wrote Shivatatwa Chintamani – a discourse on the tenets and rites of Shaivism. Jakkanarya wrote Nurondusthala (Hundred and one topics). He also liberally patronized other scholars like Kumarabanka Natha and Mallingadeva.

Jakkanarya recounted the tales of Shiva Saints to Devaraya II, aiming to prevent his definitive lean towards Vaishnavism and to assert the preeminence of Lingayatism. Adrisya later compiled these stories in his book ‘Praudharaya Charitra‘ in 1595.

Literature post Devaraya-II in Sangama dynasty

After Devaraya-II, his son Mallikarjuna (1447-65), occupied the throne and Kallinatha who wrote on the subject of music flourished under him.

Mallikarjuna’s successor was Virupaksha II. During his reign, Tontada Siddheshwara, was the famous teacher. He is also famous by the name of “Siddalinga Yati” or “Tontada”.

Tontada Siddheshwara is renowned for his prose work comprising seven hundred vachanas, known as Shatsthala Jnanamrita, which inspired many of his disciples to compose similar works. It is thought that the tradition of writing vachanas waned after the Basavanna period but experienced a resurgence with this significant work. He practiced Shiva-yoga for a long time in a garden and at the place of his burial, at Yediyur near Kunigal, a matha and a temple even exist today.

The Book Rati-Ratna Pradipika by Praudha Devaraya

The last of Sangama King was Padearao or Praudha Devaraya who wrote the book Rati-ratna-pradipika (a book on erotic). These later debauched and lewd kings of the Sangama dynasty neglected state affairs. Disgusted by this, the public and generals rose against the last king of the dynasty, Paderao, and Tuluva General Saluva Narasimha killed him.

The Book Saluva Abhyudaya on Saluva Narasimha

Saluva Narasimha sowed the seed of Saluva dynasty and ruled from 1486-1491. He was the inspirational hero of Saluva Abhyudaya (The Triumph of Saluva) – a quasi-historical poem written by poet Rajanatha Dindima, on the wars he participated in and his victories.

It tells the story of the campaigns of Narasimha who conquers Banga, Kalinga, Cauda, Utkala(Orissa), Saurastra, Maharastra and Kamboja.

Let me stop here, the second part of this article would be on the literary contributions during and after the reign of Krishnadevaraya.

References

• Lords of the Deccan – Anirudh Kanisetti
• Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1955). A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar

Click here to read about the Zenana Quarters Of Hampi

Series Navigation

Literature written by Emperor Krishnadevaraya >>